Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe: A Complex Narrative of Balancing Economic Gains and Social Strife

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) ‘refers to mining by individuals, groups, families or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanisation, often in the informal (illegal) sector of the market’.¹ A distinction can, however, be made between artisanal mining and small-scale mining. Artisanal and small-scale miners rely on basic tools and limited technology to mine gemstones and key minerals and metals such as gold, cobalt, tin, tungsten, and tantalum.² These materials are vital to the global economy, supporting essential products such as computers, mobile phones, aircraft, medical devices, and rechargeable batteries.³ A significant share of these metals is sourced through ASM. Driven by the steady demand for these goods, artisanal miners persist in their work, often facing dangerous and exploitative conditions, including child labour and other human rights violations.⁴ Due to limited resources, ASM activities are usually confined to surface and shallow underground mining, representing the simpler side of small-scale mining.⁵ Historically, ASM is a traditional practice with roots stretching back centuries across various cultures. Since ancient times, artisanal mining has been a core economic activity, supplying materials for adornments, tools, and construction, and was the dominant form of mining until the Industrial Revolution.⁶

*In South Africa, ASM is expanding, particularly in high-value resources like gold, becoming an important income source amid high poverty and unemployment. Photo Credit: Ihsaan Haffejee/GroundUp.*

In Africa, artisanal mining is particularly prevalent, contributing significantly to local economies and livelihoods. The livelihoods of 130 to 270 million people globally depend on artisanal mining.⁷ Today, artisanal mining is a highly controversial activity. To some, it is dirty and dangerous, disturbing and destructive, and frequently on the wrong side of the law. To others, it is profitable, productive, and the only means of survival in an environment with few alternatives. In Zimbabwe, artisanal mining plays a vital role in the informal economy, offering jobs to thousands of people amid widespread unemployment. While the sector operates with minimal regulation, resulting in environmental harm and safety concerns, it remains an essential source of income for families facing economic challenges.

This paper explores the complex narrative of artisanal mining in Africa, with a specific focus on Zimbabwe. It examines the prevalence and impact of artisanal mining, highlighting both its positive contributions and its negative consequences, including the rise of violent gangs known as ‘maShurugwi.’

Prevalence of Artisanal Mining in Africa

Artisanal mining is widespread throughout Africa, involving millions of people across the continent. Research indicates that over eight million people in sub-Saharan Africa work directly in ASM, with more than 45 million relying on these miners for their livelihoods.⁸ In the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), artisanal miners contribute around 20% of the country’s cobalt output, which is essential for global industries like electronics.⁹ In Zimbabwe, the sector plays a significant role in the economy’s overall development, accounting for over 60% of export revenues, more than 13% of gross domestic product (GDP), and attracting substantial direct investment into the country.¹⁰

Similarly, in Ghana, ASM is a significant economic driver, especially for gold production, employing about one million people and supporting 4.5 million dependents, accounting for around 30% of the nation’s gold output.¹¹ Formalising the sector could enhance sustainability and financial access for miners. Tanzania also relies on ASM, with small-scale miners contributing about 30% of its gold revenue.¹² The sector fosters local economic growth by supporting businesses in mining-related services and infrastructure. In South Africa, ASM is expanding, particularly in high-value resources like gold, becoming an important income source amid high poverty and unemployment rates.¹³ These countries’ reliance on ASM highlights its role in rural development, though the sector faces persistent challenges, such as environmental degradation and the need for formalisation.

Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe

Artisanal mining in Zimbabwe has deep historical roots, with its practice stretching back to the pre-colonial period when local communities engaged in small-scale mining for gold, copper, and iron.¹⁴ Over the years, the sector has adapted to changing socio-political and economic dynamics in the country. Today, artisanal miners, often called ‘makorokoza,’ play an essential role in Zimbabwe’s gold mining industry, contributing significantly to national gold production. This sector offers critical employment opportunities, particularly in rural areas where formal jobs are scarce, and it supports the economy through gold exports and local economic activity.

However, artisanal mining in Zimbabwe also brings challenges, including severe environmental pollution from mercury and other hazardous chemicals used in gold extraction. Miners face multiple health risks from toxic exposure and unsafe working conditions. Additionally, artisanal mining has been linked to violent groups known as maShurugwi. However, it is important to recognise that maShurugwi is often a pejorative term broadly applied to artisanal miners, reinforcing negative stereotypes and stigma.¹⁵

The Rise of MaShurugwi

The term maShurugwi refers to groups of artisanal miners, particularly those involved in gold mining, originating in the Midlands towns of Shurugwi and Zvishavane, where they initially asserted control over illegal mining operations through violent means.¹⁶ Over time, they extended their influence to other regions across Zimbabwe, expanding their dominance in unauthorised mining activities. This label is often associated with violent gangs who engage in unauthorised and frequently illegal mining practices. These groups have become a focal point of controversy and public concern due to the unregulated nature of their mining activities and the social issues surrounding them.

Figure 1: Map of Zimbabwe showing mineral deposits

The Zimbabwean government has deployed police and military forces to areas affected by maShurugwi gangs, conducting raids and increasing patrols to curb violence and restore order. Photo Credit: KB Mpofu/ILO.

MaShurugwi have developed a notorious reputation for violence nationwide, regularly intimidating other illegal miners through brutal tactics, including shooting, stabbing, and stoning anyone who resists them. Often armed with weapons such as guns, spears, knobkerries, and machetes, many of them are wanted by the police for allegedly committing serious crimes, including rape, kidnapping, and murder.

Negative Impact of MaShurugwi on Communities

MaShurugwi gangs have gained infamy for their brutal tactics and criminal behaviour. Their rise can be linked to economic hardships, high unemployment rates, and the profitability of gold mining. These gangs employ extreme violence to seize control of mining areas, intimidate local populations, and eliminate rivals. Their criminal activities include robbery, extortion, and murder, and they often engage in violent confrontations with competing groups, law enforcement, and formal mining companies over access to resources.¹⁷ In gold-rich areas such as Kadoma and Kwekwe, they have been involved in violent clashes with local miners and residents, resulting in fatalities and widespread fear.

Similar conflicts have erupted in other gold-producing areas, further disturbing social and economic life. As a result, maShurugwi gangs have fostered an environment of fear and instability in mining regions. Their violent actions have led to numerous deaths and injuries, while their presence disrupts local communities, causing social breakdowns and economic instability.

Additionally, their illegal mining operations contribute to severe environmental damage, affecting local ecosystems and communities. Political connections and patronage have allegedly allowed maShurugwi gangs to operate with impunity.¹⁸

Government Response to MaShurugwi

The Zimbabwean government has implemented several measures in response to maShurugwi gangs, though their effectiveness and consistency have varied:

Enhanced security measures: The government has deployed police and military forces to areas affected by maShurugwi gangs, conducting raids and increasing patrols to curb violence and restore order.¹⁹
Legal action: Law enforcement has arrested and prosecuted maShurugwi members for crimes such as robbery, assault, and murder.²⁰ However, challenges persist due to the gangs’ influence and the informal nature of mining activities.²¹
Regulation and licensing: Efforts to regulate artisanal mining have been stepped up, with initiatives such as issuing licenses and implementing stricter controls on mining operations. The goal is to formalise the sector and reduce illegal mining that often involves maShurugwi gangs.²²
Community engagement: The government has also engaged with local communities to tackle the root causes of violence, promoting economic opportunities and alternatives to illegal mining. A key initiative in this effort is the training offered by the Zimbabwe School of Mines, which focuses on the fundamentals of mining management. This capacity-building programme has proven transformative, equipping individuals with essential skills and enabling a significant number of young miners to transition from informal and artisanal mining practices to more formalised and well-structured small-scale mining enterprises.²³
Anti-crime campaigns: Various anti-crime initiatives, such as Operation Chikorokoza Ngachipere (“No more Illegal Mining”),²⁴ have been launched to combat illegal mining and organised crime, aimed at dismantling criminal networks and lessening their impact on local communities.

*The Zimbabwean government set up specialised courts to accelerate the prosecution of MaShurugwi members in an effort to swiftly address the violence. Photo Credit: The Yuri Arcurs Collection.*

In 2020, the Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) ramped up efforts to combat the gangs, leading to many arrests. In January of that year, the ZRP had apprehended 369 individuals involved in illegal mining and associated crimes.²⁵ Furthermore, the government set up specialised courts to accelerate the prosecution of maShurugwi members in an effort to address the violence swiftly. However, despite these initiatives, significant challenges remain due to the entrenched nature of ASM and the financial motivations behind illegal mining.

Economic and Social Benefits and Drawbacks of Artisanal Mining

Artisanal mining offers both significant economic and social benefits as well as notable drawbacks. On the positive side, it provides direct employment to millions of people, particularly in rural areas where formal job opportunities are scarce.²⁶ It encourages entrepreneurship, fostering self-reliance and economic activity. Revenue from artisanal mining plays a vital role in driving local economic activities. It creates backward and forward linkages, such as the supply of tools, equipment, and services, alongside mineral processing, which benefits local businesses. In some countries, earnings from artisanal mining are sometimes used to fund development projects such as schools, healthcare centres, and infrastructure, directly enhancing living standards in mining communities.

In Tanzania, the ASM sector plays a crucial role in the economy by generating substantial revenue through taxes and royalties.²⁷ These earnings have been invested in infrastructure development, particularly in the establishment of mineral processing centres such as the Katente and Itumbi stations. The development of these centres has not only enhanced the gold refining process but also contributed to the growth of local economies by providing jobs and supporting small businesses.²⁸ In Ghana, although the government has faced challenges in fully formalising artisanal mining, there are instances where the income generated by miners is reinvested into the local economy.

Artisanal miners typically use their earnings to purchase assets or support local businesses, indirectly contributing to community development and infrastructure.²⁹ Initiatives such as the Mineral Development Fund aim to direct mining revenues into projects that benefit local communities affected by mining activities, enhancing economic growth and sustainability.³⁰ Additionally, in many countries, artisanal mining plays a key role in national economies by boosting mineral production and export revenues, particularly in sectors like gold and gemstones. However, the sector also poses serious challenges.

Environmental degradation is a major concern, with deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution caused by the use of hazardous chemicals like mercury. Large forested areas are cleared to access minerals, destroying habitats and reducing biodiversity. Deforestation contributes to climate change by diminishing natural carbon sequestration. Soil erosion is another critical consequence resulting from vegetation removal, which destabilises land and strips it of fertile topsoil. This degradation compromises agricultural productivity, threatening food security for farming-dependent communities. The use of toxic chemicals, such as mercury and cyanide, in gold extraction exacerbates environmental harm. These substances frequently contaminate rivers and groundwater, posing risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health. Mercury, which accumulates in fish, introduces toxic elements into the food chain, leading to severe health issues, such as neurological damage.³¹ Abandoned mining sites often become hazards, with stagnant water in pits providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes and increasing the risk of diseases like malaria.

The lack of proper equipment, such as helmets, gloves, and masks, safety protocols and training in safe mining techniques leads to frequent accidents, resulting in health issues for miners. In January 2024, a shaft collapsed at an artisanal gold mine in Mali’s Koulikoro region, killing more than 70 people.³² Harsh working conditions, marked by extreme heat, insufficient ventilation, and inadequate access to clean water and sanitation, heighten risks of dehydration, heat-related illnesses, and waterborne diseases. Women and children, who are often involved in mining activities, face distinct dangers, such as physical exhaustion and exposure to chemicals that may affect reproductive health. Women in mining areas are also particularly at risk of gender-based violence, harassment, and exploitation, challenges that are exacerbated in unregulated and informal mining settings. While they make up a significant portion of the workforce, their contributions are often relegated to roles that are physically demanding and less profitable,³³ such as carrying ore, processing minerals, or managing tailings. These positions typically pay less than the higher-paying roles, such as digging or supervisory tasks, which are predominantly held by men.

*Members of the Climate Change Awareness Campaign in Zimbabwe meet with artisanal miners. Photo Credit: Sichelesile.*

The informal nature of artisanal mining makes it difficult to regulate, contributing to issues such as tax evasion and illegal trade, as miners operate outside the scope of official taxation systems.³⁴ Informal mining practices facilitate the illegal trade of minerals, which undermines national economies and fosters an environment where exploitation and poor working conditions persist. The lack of formal agreements or documentation weakens the enforcement of labour laws, contributing to challenges such as child labour and unfair wages.

In some regions, artisanal mining is linked to conflict, violence, and the financing of armed groups, exacerbating social instability. In the eastern DRC, artisanal mining operations involving minerals such as tin, tungsten, and tantalum are a key funding source for armed groups. Militias control many of these mining sites, profiting from the trade of these valuable minerals, often referred to as ‘conflict minerals.’³⁵ This control enables armed groups to extort miners, leading to ongoing violence and instability, and significantly prolonging conflict in the region.

Conclusion

Despite their informal status, maShurugwi play a central role in Zimbabwe’s gold mining industry, contributing a considerable share of the country’s gold production. Operating primarily in impoverished and marginalised areas, their activities bring mixed social effects. On the one hand, they create jobs and generate income; on the other hand, they contribute to environmental damage, displacement, and incidents of violence. Concerns have been raised over human rights abuses linked to their operations, including excessive force by law enforcement and violence against civilians. In Zimbabwe, artisanal mining is a critical economic lifeline but comes with risks heightened by the violent actions of maShurugwi gangs. Addressing these issues calls for a multifaceted approach – one that involves regulation, community involvement, and alternative economic pathways to harness the benefits of artisanal mining while minimising its negative impacts.

Artisanal mining across Africa is a complex landscape, offering significant economic benefits, but also posing serious social, environmental, and health challenges. Despite the many challenges, adopting sustainable practices and enforcing stricter environmental regulations could mitigate many negative effects, promoting a balance between economic benefits and environmental stewardship. Collaborative interventions involving governments, nongovernmental organisations, and private entities are also essential to provide affordable safety equipment, specialised training, and healthcare support to mitigate health risks.

Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe: A Complex Narrative of Balancing Economic Gains and Social Strife

In Zimbabwe, artisanal mining plays a vital role in the informal economy, offering jobs to thousands of people amid widespread unemployment

Prevalence of Artisanal Mining in Africa

Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe

The Rise of MaShurugwi

Negative Impact of MaShurugwi on Communities

Government Response to MaShurugwi

Economic and Social Benefits and Drawbacks of Artisanal Mining

Conclusion

Rumbidzaishe Matambo

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Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe: A Complex Narrative of Balancing Economic Gains and Social Strife

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Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe: A Complex Narrative of Balancing Economic Gains and Social Strife

In Zimbabwe, artisanal mining plays a vital role in the informal economy, offering jobs to thousands of people amid widespread unemployment

Prevalence of Artisanal Mining in Africa

Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe

The Rise of MaShurugwi

Negative Impact of MaShurugwi on Communities

Government Response to MaShurugwi

Economic and Social Benefits and Drawbacks of Artisanal Mining

Conclusion

Rumbidzaishe Matambo

This Issue

Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe: A Complex Narrative of Balancing Economic Gains and Social Strife

By Rumbidzaishe Matambo

Conflict Resolution by the African Union: Encounters of Peacekeeping Efforts in Somalia

By Jacqueline Nakaiza Charlotte Karungi Mafumbo

Critical Reflections on SADC’s approach to Regional Security: The case of SAMIM

By Chikondi Chidzanja

The Role of the African Union Peace and Security Council in Promoting the Responsible use of Artificial Intelligence for Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Africa

By Victor Obinna Chukwuma

Analysing the Root Causes of Armed Conflicts in Northern Ethiopia

By Alemu Mullaw

By

Rumbidzaishe Matambo

By

Jacqueline Nakaiza

Charlotte Karungi Mafumbo

By

Chikondi Chidzanja

By

Victor Obinna Chukwuma

By

Alemu Mullaw