The environment is a silent victim of war. Images from Ukraine or Sudan remind us that conflicts not only destroy a country’s social and economic fabric but also its ecosystem, thereby compromising development and reconstruction in times of peace. The international community has long been aware of this, which is why environmental protection during armed conflicts is directly and indirectly safeguarded by several international treaties. As early as 1977, the Geneva Convention was updated with a protocol that prohibits the use of the environment as a military target. Conversely, the idea that climate change itself can indirectly provoke tensions leading to conflict is gaining increasing attention. For those familiar with Africa, a striking example is the issue of transhumance. From the Horn of Africa to the Sahel, the reduction of fertile land, population growth, and the frequent drying up of water basins have intensified conflicts between herders and farmers at both national and transnational levels.
These dynamics clearly show how closely conflicts and environmental changes are linked and underscore the need to adopt increasingly integrated approaches to address these challenges – as recognised by many UN agencies. However, although climate issues are now central to debates on conflicts, it is surprising how little attention is given to one of the most dangerous threats to peace: landmines. Echoing the words of Jody Williams, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, landmines do not distinguish between a child and a soldier, and when the war ends, they go on killing: a “landmine is eternally prepared to take victims.” Furthermore: their suspected or confirmed presence deprives communities of access to essential natural resources like arable land, pastures and water sources. This may lead a population to intensively exploit marginal areas, further harming the ecosystem. When they explode, landmines can severely damage soil and reduce land productivity. Finally, if not carefully managed, mine clearance operations can also damage the environment. After the war, Vietnam recorded a 50% reduction in rice production per hectare in contaminated areas.
[…] although climate issues are now central to debates on conflicts, it is surprising how little attention is given to one of the most dangerous threats to peace: landmines.
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This is important to remember because, as highlighted in the latest report by the International Committee of the Red Cross, landmines still represent one of the greatest challenges to the application of international humanitarian law today. According to Land Monitor, landmines – and particularly cluster munitions – continue to be used by state and non-state armed groups in Ukraine, Myanmar, Colombia, India, Thailand, Tunisia, and in countries in or bordering with the Sahel region. In 2022, at least 4,710 people were killed or injured by landmines and explosive remnants of war. Improvised mines, most of which are believed to act as antipersonnel mines, accounted for the highest number of casualties for the seventh consecutive year. Among them, 85% were civilians, half of whom were children. According to the report, while Russia has extensively used mines and explosive devices since the beginning of the invasion, the situation in Africa is also particularly alarming, not only due to the use of mines but also because of the context in which it occurs. Most of the countries affected by landmines such as Chad, Eritrea, Sudan, South Sudan and Ethiopia (which reported massive anti-personnel landmine contamination equivalent to 726.07km²) are also among the most vulnerable to climate change, with pre-existing issues such as political instability, food insecurity and land degradation. Since 2014, according to the Small Arms Survey, the spread of improvised explosive devices in West Africa has been “out of control.” These are artisanal mines or, as the research centre’s report indicates, mostly anti-tank mines of Belgian origin that were stored in Libyan depots. After Gaddafi’s fall, they changed hands multiple times, eventually reaching the Central African Republic, thousands of kilometres away. The presence of landmines is likely to increase communities’ vulnerabilities and hamper post-conflict recovery efforts. But what makes this situation even more concerning is the limited attention that major donor countries give to the continent.
In 2022, funding allocated to mine action constituted just 0.4% of total global Official Development Assistance (ODA). This is even more concerning considering that funding had increased by 52% in that year, equivalent to $314.5 million more than in 2021. However, most of these funds were directed to Ukraine, largely due to the extensive financial support provided by the United States and the European Union. In contrast, countries like Iraq and Afghanistan, received less than the previous year. While some increases in funding were recorded in 2022 in Africa (such as in Ethiopia, Mali, or Niger), this was mainly because the initial amounts were practically zero. While Ukraine received $162 million, Iraq $89 million, Afghanistan $66 million, and Yemen $64 million, Mali received $2 million, Burkina Faso $2.5 million, Niger just over $1 million, and Chad less than $1 million.
In 2022, at least 4,710 people were killed or injured by landmines and explosive remnants of war. Improvised mines, most of which are believed to act as antipersonnel mines, accounted for the highest number of casualties for the seventh consecutive year.
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Although the AU itself has not created a specific treaty solely focused on landmines, it strongly supports international efforts to eradicate them. African countries are key participants in the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention (APMBC), also known as the Ottawa Treaty, which prohibits the use, stockpiling, production, and transfer of anti-personnel mines. The majority of the AU member states are signatories, and the AU has been involved in discussions to encourage the full implementation of this treaty across Africa. In 2014, the AU launched the African Union Mine Action and Explosive Remnants of War Strategic Framework, which aimed to help member states reduce the threats posed by landmines, unexploded ordnance, and other explosive remnants of war. The framework focused on advocacy for universal compliance with international conventions like the Ottawa Treatyand promoted national ownership of mine action programs. It also emphasised the importance of de-mining and explosive hazard management to support peacebuilding and post-conflict reconstruction efforts across Africa.
However, the AU should remind its members States to fulfil the clearance obligation under Article 5 of the Ottawa Treaty: between 2021 and 2022, signatory countries like Ethiopia, Niger, Somalia and Sudan cleared less than 0.5 km2 of their territories. Internationally, the AU should advocate for increased financial support for demining activities across the Continent while securing its own additional resources for demining programmes. Globally, integrating landmine action within the climate change-peace debate is essential for creating comprehensive strategies to address the multifaceted challenges arising from conflict, environmental degradation, and humanitarian crises. Policy and decision-makers should emphasise the links between landmines, environmental degradation, and climate change as interconnected issues that exacerbate vulnerabilities in post-conflict settings.
Francesca Caruso is an Analyst and Conflict Mediator.
